New Generation Sequencing Technologies: Population Genetics

New Generation Sequencing Technologies: Population Genetics New generation sequencing technologies have the potential to rapidly accelerate population genetics research, allowing scientists to comprehensively understand complex evolutionary histories, as well as functional and ecological biodiversity (Shokralla, et al., 2012; Shendure Hanlee, 2008). Prior to 1977, sequence production involved the handling of toxic chemicals and radio-active isotopes, restricting sequencing to persons of high expertise and speciality (Hunkapiller, 1991; Swerdlow, et al., 1990; Sanger, et al., 1977). In 1977, Fred Sanger and Alan R. Coulson published two methodological papers describing a new form of DNA sequencing technology, which would lead to the method (capillary-based, semi-automated Sanger biochemistry) used almost exclusively in the field, for the next 30 years (Shendure Hanlee, 2008). Sanger sequencing transformed biology. It became a tool for deciphering complete genes and, later, entire genomes. Due to the unprecedented extent at which Sanger techn ology grew, factory-like enterprises, called sequencing centres, were established, housing hundreds of DNA sequencing instruments, operated by cohorts of personnel (Schuster, 2008; Hunkapilla, et al., 1991). Despite the dominance of Sanger sequencing in laboratories, for a number of decades, the technology had and continues to be hampered by inherent limitations in throughput, scalability, speed and resolution (Shendure Hanlee, 2008). To overcome these barriers, an entirely new technology was required, one that democratised the field, putting the technology of comprehensive genetic analysis into the hands of individual investigators, not only major genome research centres (Shendure Hanlee, 2008). The need for new technologies was pushed for by the facilitators of the Human Genome Project (HGP) (Ventor, et al., 2001). The excitement and successful completion of the HGP, by two competing research bodies, lead to collective hunger for more advanced, economical sequencing technologies. Next-generation sequencing (NGS), also known as massively parallel sequencing, was such a technology and has ignited a revolution in genomic science, similar to that seen when Sanger technology was presented in 1977, honing in on the era of ‘post-genomic’ research (Schuster, 2008). The revolutionary nature of NGS technologies first became apparent in 2005, in two separate publications, 454 Life Sciences (Marguiles, et al., 2005) and the Multiplex Polony Sequencing Protocol (Shendure, et al., 2005). The methodology of both research groups resulted in vast reductions in the necessary reaction volume, while dramatically extending the number of sequencing reactions (Schuster, 2008). Despite such advances, in sequencing technology, NGS had a slow uptake in the scientific community, with a number of scientists having reservations. According to Schuster (2008), scientists accustomed to Sanger sequencing, as well as the initial scepticism echoed by funding bodies, resulted in a fear that large financial investments into Sanger-sequencing technologies would not produce returns, due to the technologies becoming obsolete. Other concerns were also raised, regarding the sequencing fidelity, read length, infrastructure cost and the handling of the large data volumes produced by NGS (Zhang, et al., 2011). It was the process of combining ongoing Sanger sequencing projects with NGS technologies that promoted its acceptance, into the scientific community. Once the enormous potential of the technology had been realised, along with new and upcoming biology projects that required sequencing outside of what the current Sanger technology could feasibly produce, the concerns raised by NGS’s early sceptics started to be overlooked. A combination of both first and second generation technologies are now used in sequencing facilities and projects around the world, the implications of which, for the fields of evolutionary biology and population genetics is vast. Researchers now have the ability to observe small changes in ecological community structure that may occur following anthropogenic or natural environmental fluctuations (Hajibabaei, et al., 2011; Leininger, et al., 2006; Hunkapiller, et al., 1991). Such implications of NGS technologies has led to the generation of whole-genome sequence data, for thousands of individuals (Akey Shriver, 2011; Harismendy, et al., 2009). The availability of such data is leading to a better understanding of evolutionary processes, such as descriptions of sex-biased dispersal and mutation rate biases (e.g., Wilson Sayres, M. A., et al., 2011). Furthermore, the ability to sequence the genomes of species, that have been long extinct, is no longer nonsensical, provided the samples from which DNA is to be extracted is still viable (Green, et al., 2010; Reich, et al., 2010). The hope that such projects may help population geneticists better understand the process of extinction, whether anthropomorphically or n aturally induced, may help those endangered species whose current possibility of extinction, in the near future, is high (Akey Shriver, 2011; Miller, et al., 2011). However, despite such ambitious aspirations of population geneticists, one large area of research that remains surprisingly unanswered, within the literature, is the definition of a population or ‘the population concept’ (Waples Gaggiotti, 2006). Given the importance of such a concept, one might expect to find a commonly used definition, one that is applicable to wild species, to determine how many populations exist within a delineated geographic area and the relationships amongst them (Waples Gaggiotti, 2006). However, one does not exist, rather there is evidence that what makes a ‘population’ is based on the research question. NGS technologies are providing population geneticists with the opportunity to flesh out a detailed definition of a population, on the molecular level. For example, Waples Gaggiotti (2006) ask â€Å"How different must molecular units be before individuals can be considered a part of separate populations?† Different criteria can be established and assigned to individuals, in order to determine the answer. The interplay of different evolutionary forces (selection, migration, drift) will favour different species, with different forces being more obvious, at the molecular level, than others. The ability to pose a research question, pertaining to the individuals, within a particular habitat, is now possible due to the ability to sequence numerous samples with NGS technologies. The implications, in population genetics, for a new generation of sequencing technologies, are a greater focus on testing expectations. Such expectations, simultaneously, result in excitement and daunt to those undertaking evolutionary and population genetic research, at present. Excitement exists because fundamental questions, pertaining to the patterns of genetic variation, within and between species, can now be analysed, with new generation sequencing technologies, such as NGS. Although NGS technology may still be in its infancy, the powerful possibility of analysing massive data sets is within reach of the individual and large-scale sequencing facilities alike, at a highly reduced cost. However, the methodological tools and theoretical models needed to interpret such large data sets are equally daunting to both new, and experienced, evolutionary and population geneticists. Despite such present and future challenges, population genetics research is looking promising, thanks to adv ances in NGS adoption and computation. References Akey, J. M. Shriver, M. D. (2011). A grand challenge in evolutionary population genetics: new paradigms for exploring the past and charting the future in the post-genomic era. Frontiers in Genetics 2, 1-2. Green R. E., Krause J., Briggs A. W., Maricic T., Stenzel U., Kircher M., Patterson N., †¦ Pà ¤Ãƒ ¤bo S. (2010). A draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome. Science 328, 710–722. Hajibabaei, M., Shokralla, S., Zhou, X., Singer, G. A. C. Baird, D. J. (2011). Environmental barcoding: a next-generation sequencing approach for biomonitoring applications using river benthos. PLoS ONE 6, e17497. Harismendy, O., Ng, P. C., Strausberg, R. L., Wang, X., Stockwell, T. B., Beeson, K. Y., Schork, N. J., †¦ Frazer, K. A. (2009). Evaluation of next generation sequencing platforms for population targeted sequencing studies. Genome Biology 10 (3), 32-39. Hunkapiller, M. W. (1991). Advances in DNA sequencing technology. Current Opinion in Genetics Development 1 (1), 88-92. Hunkapiller, T., Kaiser, R. J., Koop, B. F. Hood, L. (1991). Large-scale and automated DNA sequence determination. Science 254, 59-67. Leininger, S., Urich, T., Schloter, M., Schwark, L., Qi, J., Nicol, G. W., Prosser, J. I., Schuster, S. C. Schleper, C. (2006). Archaea predominate among ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes in soils. Nature 442, 806-809. Marguiles, M., Egholm, M., Altman, W. E., Attiya, S., Bader, J. S., Bemben, L. A., †¦ Rothberg, J. M. (2005). Genome sequencing in microfabricated high-density picolitre reators. Nature 437, 376-380. Miller W., Hayes V. M., Ratan A., Petersen D. C., Wittekindt N. E., Miller J., Walenz B., †¦ Schuster S. C. (2011). Genetic diversity and population structure of the endangered marsupial Sarcophilus harrisii (Tasmanian devil). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108 (30), 12348-12353. Reich D., Green R. E., Kircher M., Krause J., Patterson N., Durand E. Y., Viola B., †¦ Pà ¤Ãƒ ¤bo S. (2010). Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia. Nature 468, 1053–1060. Sanger, F., Air, G. M., Barrell, B. G., Brown, N. L., Coulson, A. R., Fiddes, J. C., Hutchison, C. A. III, Slocombe, P. M. Smith, M. (1977). Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA. Nature 265, 687-695. Schuster, S. C. (2008). Next-generation sequencing transforms today’s biology. Nature Methods 5 (1), 16-18. Shendure, J. Hanlee, J. (2008). Next-generation DNA sequencing. Nature Biotechnology 26 (10), 1135-1145. Shendure, J., Porreca, G.J., Reppas, N. B., Lin, X., McCutcheon, J. P., Rosenbaum, A. M., Wang, M. D., Zhang, K., Mitra, R. D. Church, G. M. (2005). Accurate multiplex polony sequencing of an evolved bacterial genome. Science 309, 1728-1732. Shokralla, S., Spall, J. L., Gibson, J. F. Hajibabaei, M. (2012). Next generation sequencing technologies for environmental DNA research. Molecular Ecology 21, 1794-1805. Swerdlow, H., Wu, S. L., Harke, H. Dovichi, N. J. (1990). Capillary gel electrophoresis for DNA sequencing. Laser-induced fluorescence detection with the sheath flow cuvette. Journal of Chromatography 516, 61-67. Ventor, J. C., Adams, M. D., Myers, E.W., Li, P. W., Mural, R. J., Sutton, G. G., Amanatides, P., †¦, Zhu, X. (2001). The sequence of the human genome. Science 291, 1304-1351. Waples, R. S. Gaggiotti, O. (2006). INVITED REVIEW: What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity. Molecular Ecology 15 (6), 1419-1439. Wilson Sayres M. A., Venditti C., Pagel M., Makova K. D. (2011). Do variations in substitution rates and male mutation bias correlate with life history traits? A study of 32 mammalian genomes. Evolution 65 (10), 2800-2815. Zhang, J., Chiodini, R., Badr, A. Zhang, G. (2011). The impact of next-generation sequencing on genomics. Journal of Genetics and Genomics 38, 95-109. Influences of Greek Culture: History of the Spartans Influences of Greek Culture: History of the Spartans The Spartans In the summer of 480 B.C a battle took place that would forever change the history of the Greeks and that would eventually influence the way in which the Western world looked at war. The Spartans took their stand against the massive army of Persians in a three day battle which resulted in the Persians taking the win but may have very well led to the Greeks winning the Greco-Persian War. A culmination of strong tactical skill and bravery contributed to the Spartans making a stand much longer and stronger than anybody could have ever predicted. The Persian king Xerxes led his massive army through the narrow mountain pass known as Thermopylae expecting no considerable fight on the part of the Spartans. The Persians bid to conquer Greece was significantly halted because of the Spartan resistance, which was led by Leonidas,followed by a small army of Spartans, amounting to no more than 300. But no matter the size of Spartas fleet, Sparta if not the strongest, was one of the strongest mili tary powers in ancient Greece. And despite them being vastly outnumbered by the Persians at Thermopylae, they did indeed prove their military strength and sophistication which resulted in their near defeat of the Persian army. Greek culture was and still is up to today a heavy influence on the modern cultures of the Western world. It is because of this heavy influence of Greek culture in the western world, the knowledge of their history proves crucial to many aspects of our understanding of our own cultures. This heavy influence on the development of the western world could very easily be the reason that the Battle of Thermopylae and other battles surrounding it, have become of such importance and high level of study. The valiant stand of the Spartans at Thermopylae lead to the Greeks defeat of the Persians in the Greco-Persian war and enabled the further development of a culture from which the western world gains many of its principles and ideas. If the Spartans had not delayed the Persians at Thermopylae there may have been a very different ending to the Greco-Persian war. This being an important observation because the Greco-Persian war played such a crucial role in the history of Greece, a defeat could have resulted in a very different future for the western civilization. The culture of Greece was one that strived for perfection in every sense of the word, but there was a dark side to the culture that so many have grown to praise. This dark side can be seen in the Spartans treatment of the Helots, who were in essence a Greek culture in their own, the Messenia’s, but early on became enslaved by the power Spartans who were in desperate need to acquire more land to deal with the burden of overpopulation. The Spartans held true and easily demonstrated as what is seen as Greece’s inability to incorporate. The poor treatment of the Helots lead them to begin a 30 year revolt, in which the Spartans took twenty years to take control of the situation. Fear of more events like this, is what turned Sparta into the war state that it became. The attempt to suppress the Helots, by the Spartans, in many ways assisted the Spartans in their attempt to defeat the Persians. No longer willing to undergo a similar revolt, the Spartans devoted a considerable a mount of time and energy making certain to prevent all such events. It was because of these efforts that major components of Spartan culture, as we know it today, were all enforced. This can be easily seen in the devotion to physical perfection and warring techniques. And equally as important as their attempt to suppress the Helots was the contribution of the Helots in constructing their armor and warring tools. So despite the overwhelmingly poor treatment of the Helots, they played a crucial role in preparing the Spartans for the challenges to come and in the heat of battle. Even though they may have played an indirect role the affect that had on both the culture and the Battle of Thermopylae itself was indeed direct. The Greeks had a large influence on the development of western world in many respects. Whether it is an influence on science or art, to anyone who has studied Greece in the days of its glory the influences be easily pinpointed. These influences continue into the art of war. As previously stated, war was a constant in Greece so much so that it became imbedded in its very culture. Consequently the way in which war was conducted in ancient Greece has become a portrait of the way in which it should be conducted, and set a standard around the Western world for years to come. Despite war being one of the most immoral, barbaric, and most appalling of all human creations, the Greeks did the impossible, by successfully portraying war as something of beauty, patriotism, freedom and self-sacrifice. Therein lays a reason the significance of the Battle at Thermopylae. That one battle not only captured the spirit of the Greeks, more specifically the Spartans, in three days but became a turning poi nt of the art of war. But the Battle of Thermopylae more importantly defended the very future of the modern world. It was Spartan culture, which in many ways, influenced the Spartans ability to stand against the Persians as long as they did. To overlook the role of Spartan culture in relation to their stand at Thermopylae would be to overlook one of the most influential aspects of the battle. Spartan culture was one of great complexity having many intricate characteristics, which adapted to the situations that they held witness to. Spartans were people of extreme patriotic pride and military prowess, who sought perfection in every form. But equal to their patriotism was their oppressive tactics towards their captives. Spartans weren’t people who believed in the concept of freedom. The Spartans for several centuries, while in Laconia and Messenia, exercised a ruthless enslavement of other native Greeks, whose land they conquered. Sparta was a military aristocracy, who wasn’t a military state for the sake of being a military state. In many respects Sparta’s army, parallel to no t other, was created and maintained for the sole purpose of suppressing the Helots. In theory it was because of Sparta’s ‘inability to incorporate’ that lead to their standing army. Sparta’s military achievements are, no doubt, the most impressive of all their possible accomplishments. By the middle of the sixth century Sparta was already considered the strongest military force in Greece. Despite the brute strength the of the Spartan army, the Spartan were still worried that a revolt from their underclass (the Helots)would cripple their advancement as a society. â€Å"The Helot underclass were always threatening to rise up in significant numbers against their masters. So, at the beginning of each new civil year Sparta’s chief elected officials, the board of five ephors (overseers, supervisors), formally declared war on them. If any Helots did choose to rebel, they might then be killed with impunity†¦.† The awareness of a possible revolt kept the Spartans military forces extremely strong. This tension between the Spartans and Helots, strongly prepared the military forces for both the expected and unexpected, a beneficial trait which played to their advantage at the Battle of Thermopylae. Another trait that played to their advantage was the educational system of Sparta. The agoge was instated into Spartan culture to both develop the physical and mental maturity of all Spartan boys and was a requirement for all Spartan males.

A Study On Colleges Online Education Essay

The instruction system in India today has evolved significantly in the last 20 old ages. In the 1990s, most pupils went to a college in their metropolis and studied whatever class was offered at that place. If they lived in a smaller town without a good college, so they were forced to go to their nearest metropolis and live a fighting pupil life, far off from their household. At the terminal of the first decennary in the twenty-first century, nevertheless, the options that pupils have for college have exploded massively. Today, pupils have their pick of college, grade and topics, sitting in the comfort of their place, no affair how little their town is. All they need is a computing machine & A ; the Internet. There are several colleges online that a pupil can take from. From the oldest and most reputed IGNOU ( Indira Gandhi National Open University ) to the vicinity metropolis college, a pupil has their choice of colleges online where they can obtain grades, sheepskin and certifications in any topic they choose. Colleges online typically find B.A. , B.Com. & A ; B.Sc. courses more popular among pupils and IGNOU offers grades in rarer topics like Medical Imaging & A ; Radiology, Fashion Merchandising, Textile Design and even Architecture online. There are a few colleges online that offer complete sheepskin classs online with no text edition or notes in paper at all. These ‘virtual ‘ classs are typically non complete grades but station alumnus sheepskin classs in some specialisations like Cyber Law, Food Safety, Business Process Outsourcing, etc. Most colleges online will follow a method of direction as follows:Printed educational material/textbooks/guides are giving to the pupils at the start of the classRegular assignments, trials are given online which the pupil has to finish in a timely modeFace-to-face contact Sessionss, on-line confabs by which the pupil can clear up uncertainties with the moduleSome colleges online like IGNOU besides offer video cyclosis of lessons which the pupil can see at his or her ain leisureThere are several advantages to analyzing from colleges online. Some of them are given below:The pupil has the pick of colleges to analyze from instead being restricted to the college in their townThe pupil has a wider pick of capable & A ; specialisation to analyze from when taking colleges onlineThe pupil has the flexibleness of agenda with colleges online go forthing clip free for prosecuting another grade, working or even looking after their householdHowever, there are besides many safeguards that a pupil must take before taking from the several colleges online. Some of the safeguards are:Choose a echt college: First, a simple cheque on the University Grants Commission ( UGC ) web site ( www.ugc.ac.in ) will state the pupil whether their college has been reported as sham or has been given accreditation by UGC.Talk to Alumni: All good colleges online will give the pupils some manner to reach alumnas who have completed their class and who prospective pupils can acquire admittance from.Physical Contact: If possible, see the college ‘s office in individual or speak to them through the telephone and justice whether they are an existent college offering existent instruction.Online MBA gradesSeveral Online MBA grades are available on the Internet presents and the pupil is spoilt for pick. How does a pupil travel about measuring which Online MBA grade is the best option for them? There are many standards which are of import when taking an On-line MBA plan and we shall discourse some of them below:The repute of the institute:It is really of import non to acquire an online MBA grade from any unheard of on-line university. If possible, look at on-line MBA grade ‘s merely from colleges that offer full-time MBA grades. Then it will be easier to measure the college utilizing published rankings which appear in magazines. If the college offers merely on-line MBA grades and non full-time grades, so you must look into whether the college is affiliated to a university and authorized to run this plan.The course of study:Merely because it is an on-line MBA grade does n't intend that you should non acquire a good instruction. You are paying the fees for an MBA and you should have an MBA instruction every bit good as a grade. Compare the course of study of the online MBA grade with that of the university ‘s full-time plan.The faculty-student interaction:Some on- line MBA grades merely direct you the class stuff and trials whereas others offer a confab installation with module and the best 1s offer video streaming talks, confabs, webinars and other manners of on-line interaction. Look for the maximal points of interaction between module & A ; pupil ; it will maintain the class interesting for you. Besides make certain that if you need assist or guidance, a module member will be available for you to reach.Contact Sessionss:Though the grade may be an on-line MBA grade, you should hold the option of go toing unrecorded talks and meetings with the module one time in 3-6 months. This is besides an chance to run into other pupils and acquire to cognize them.Alumnuss:Contact old pupils of the online MBA grade plan at the college you plan to go to and see what they have to state about the college. You are finally taking an MBA to foster your calling chances and if your online MBA grade is seen as non utile or worse, harmful, so it could be a waste o f your clip or money. Check the mentions carefully before you pay any fees or sedimentations.Finally some general advice:An online MBA grade can be a rewarding and enriching measure on the corporate ladder.Making the right pick of college and plan for your online MBA grade can do all the difference between it being a great measure or a little measure on your manner to success.Evaluate all your options sagely, talk to as many people as you can.Do n't listen merely to the college ‘s selling talk, what is the best option for the college may non be the best option for your online MBA grade.Online MBA grades can assist you acquire a making while you have a full-time occupation or place duties during the twenty-four hours. But they still require survey and difficult work if you want to derive an instruction from it.While taking an online MBA grade, besides take a expression at the specialisation that is right for your calling way and where you want to travel in the hereafter. The ri ght pick of specialisation can besides assist you alter your calling way.

General Health

Ambulatory – Promotion and assistance with walking to maintain or store autonomic and voluntary body functions during treatment and recovery from illness or injury Braces – An orthopedic appliance used to support, align, or hold a bodily part in the correct position. Canes – Canes or walking canes are just one of several devices available to assist in ambulation, or walking. Using a walking cane improves balance by increasing a person's base of support. When used correctly, canes unload the leg opposite to the cane is in by up to twenty five percent.Carry – To hold or support while walking. Crutches – Is a wooden or metal staff used to aid a patient's mobility impairment or an injury that limits walking ability. Gait – The manner or style of walking. Depends on the person's ability to support their weight and balance. Hydraulic Life – It can help transfer an immobile or obese patient safely from the bed to a chair. Life Sheet – Is a sheet used in the medical industry to lift immobile patients from their bed. It can be made of plastic, rubber, or cotton, and is about half the size of a regular sheet.It supports the body from the upper back to mid thigh during lifting. Mobility- the ability to move or be moved freely and easily. Movement- the act or process of moving people or wings from one place or position to another; the act of moving from one place or position to another. Non-ambulatory- not able to walk about. Orthodontic hypertension- also called postural hypertension; is a form of low blood pressure that happens when you stand up from sitting or lying down.Stretcher litter, or pram IS an apparatus used for moving patients who require medical care; a device that is made of a long piece of thick cloth stretched between two poles and that is used for carrying an injured or dead person. Transfer- an act of moving something or someone to another place. Transfer belt- a belt used to transfer a disabled per son from one location to another by placing the belt around that person's waist and using it to hold on to while safely transferring the patient.Walker- a frame that is designed to support someone (such as a baby or an injured or elderly person) who needs help in walking. Weight- a measurement that indicates how heavy a person or thing is. Wheelchair- a chair fitted with wheels for use as a means of transport by a person who is unable to walk as a result of illness, injury, or disability. Safety points or issues when a patient is on: STRETCHER Lock the wheels of the bed and stretcher before the client transfers in or out of them. ; Fasten safety straps across the client on a stretcher, and raise the side rails. Never leave a client unattended on a stretcher unless the wheels are locked and the side rails are raised on both sides and/or the safety straps are securely fastened across the client. ; Always push a stretcher from the end where the client's head is positioned. This positio n protects the client's head in the event of a collision. ; If the stretcher has two swivel wheels and two stationary wheels: a) Always position the client's head at the end tit the stationary wheels and b) Push the stretcher from the end with the stationary wheels.The stretcher is maneuvered more easily when pushed from this end. ; Maneuver the stretcher when entering the elevator so that the clients head goes in first. Wheelchair Ã'Å¡Remember the disabled person will say how to maneuver the chair. Stake note of their wishes to move. Do not shake him. ;Place the chair properly before transporting and always lock brakes. Ã'Å¡Check the position of the arms and legs. May they have sensory disturbances, and in that case, did not realize the blows, wounds, burns, etc. Suspense he dresses, cushions, blankets, etc. Re tight, so you do not get caught in the wheels. C]Do not forget that the disabled person may suffer if mishandled in his wheelchair. Remember that he may have a difficulty in responding to a particular question. Give some time for the patient to respond. Be discreet. Do not ask about the source or cause of disability. The patient may feel upset. DOD not push the wheelchair too fast or turn it suddenly without warning the patient the maneuver. LIDO not forget that the patient can feel ignored or relegated if health care talks to another person that is out of reach or his eight.DOD not lift the chair by the arms, it could cause an accident. C]Consider the other pedestrians when driving the chair. The city, go through traffic signals. Always notify the maneuver. C]Len an uneven terrain, it will be easier to push the chair if tilt by the large wheels. Tilt it always to prevent the patient from falling. Importance of Transfer and Ambulation Transfer and Ambulation is important because it helps patients with restricted mobility attain or maintain mobility and independence. Transfer and ambulation can maintain and improve joint motion, increase strength, and p romote circulation.Frequent transferring can also reduce pressure on skin of bed ridden patients thus avoiding bedsore. Ambulation helps patients that have been through some physical injury or patients that experienced stroke. It helps them regain motion The following benefits shows the importance Of transfer and and stability over affected areas. Ambulation: Maintains and improves joint motion increases strength Promotes circulation Relieves pressure on the skin Improves urinary and respiratory function Increases social activity Increases mental stimulation Indications of Transfer and Ambulation Patient isn't stablePatient has limited mobility and strength Patient is injured Patient is elderly and needs assistance Patient has musculoskeletal impairment patient has been bed ridden Patient is losing muscle endurance, strength, control, or mass. Contraindications of Transfer and Ambulation Patient is stable Patient has enough mobility and strength Patient has not sustained physical in jury patient is not elderly and in need Of assistance Patient is not bed ridden Patient gets enough exercise and movements Patient is not cooperative and prefers not to be helped Basic Guidelines in transferring and ambulating patients .Follow the rules for good body mechanics. 2. Check walking aids frequently to make sure they are in good condition. 3. Always explain the procedure to the patient ahead of time. 4. Make sure all devices are fitted properly to the patient. 5. Make sure all tips Of canes, walkers and crutches are flat on the floor. 6. Make sure the patient is not placing the walker too far from him or her. 7. Do not allow the patient on crutches to support his or her weight on the auxiliary pad. Only on the handle bar. 8. Make sure the patient's non-skid shoes or slippers fit well and in good repair. . Watch signs for patient discomfort or fatigue Factors that affect Transfer and Ambulation ; Age – greatly affects activity, during the infants and toddler period, mobility develops rapidly and is refined and expanded throughout childhood and adolescence and into young adulthood with effects to maximize the attributes. ; Lifestyle – people learn early in life often from the families, the value of activity in relation to health. ; Neuromuscular and skeletal impediments – disease and injuries that affect the neuromuscular or skeletal systems can hinder movement. Nutrition- adequate nutrition supplies vitamins and minerals essential for bone function. ; General Health- the client's general health status is reflected on how the individual moves. Illness, disability, inactivity and chronic fatigue have unfavorable effects on musculoskeletal function. ; Emotions -? the client's emotional state may influence posture and ways of moving about. ; Attitudes and Values – people who are conscious with body mechanics and gait would protect their body structures and posture from injury. Levels of Understanding – understanding the elements of body mechanics would encourage its use. Principles involved in transfer and ambulation ; Body mechanics ; Human anatomy & physiology ; Psychology ; Physics ; Time & energy ; Safety & security Mechanical Devices used in Transferring Patients using Stretcher Transfer belt Hydraulic lift A stretcher, litter, or pram is an apparatus used for moving patients who require medical care. A basic type (cot or litter) must be carried by two or more people.Whereas a wheeled stretcher (known as a gurney, trolley, bed or cart) is often equipped with variable height frames containing wheels, tracks, or skids. Stretchers are primarily used in acute out-of-hospital care situations by EMUS, military, and Search and rescue personnel. However they are also used to hold prisoners during lethal injections in the United States. EMUS stretchers Classification used in ambulances have wheels that makes transportation over pavement easier, and have a lock inside the ambulance and stables to secur e the patient during transport.Simple stretchers are the most rudimentary type. They are light;eight and portable, made of canvas or other synthetic material suspended between two poles or tubular aluminum frame. Many are stored as disaster supplies and are often former military equipment. The folding stretcher, also known as a top deck or collapsible stretcher, is similar in design to the simple stretcher, but features one or more hinged points of articulation to allow the stretcher to be collapsed into a more compact form for easier handling or storage.Some models may even allow the patient to sit upright in a Fowlers or Semi-Fowlers position. The scoop stretcher is used for lifting patients, for instance from the ground onto an ambulance stretcher or long board. The two ends of the stretcher can be detached from each other, splitting the stretcher into two longitudinal halves. To load a patient, one or both ends of the stretcher are detached, the halves placed under the patient f rom either side and fastened back together.

`` Always Outgunned, Always Outnumbered By Walter Mosley

â€Å"Always Outgunned, Always Outnumbered† is a cornucopia of 14 parable, interconnected short stories deeply embedded with philosophic moral dilemmas, written by author Walter Mosley. This collection of stories is an episodic look into the life of Socrates Fortlow; the book’s stoic main character, who must endure the daily struggles of being a symbolic black man in a predominately white man’s world. Without ever becoming too race centered, author Walter Mosley’s primary focus is about the animosity and conflict of inner city blacks that face the daily chaos; of violent crime, gangs, drugs, poverty, unemployment, police brutality, humiliation, and discrimination within their community. Each short story exhibits their own plot of morals, unforeseen wisdoms, and life lessons on how to maintain one’s own pride, dignity, respect and never resorting to violence as a source of resolution to any conflict one might face. In the book, Chapter 1: Crimson Sha dow, Socrates bellows out this very sentiment, â€Å"how you gonna make it right?† [21] Meet Socrates Fortlow, a 58 year old ex-con, who served 27 years in prison for double homicide and rape. Socrates finds himself 8 years after his release from incarceration, still struggling to survive on the mean streets of Los Angeles. Unemployed, he must scavenge for recyclable bottles and cans, he resides in a small two room dilapidated apartment, he has toShow MoreRelatedAlways Outnumbered, Always Outgunned Essay700 Words   |  3 PagesIn my opinion, a book is always a better choice for entertainment then a movie. Usually, when a book is adapted into a movie; the movie always seems to omit scenes and details mentioned in the book. This is the same with Walter Mosley’s Always Outnumbered, Always Outgunned; a novel that tells a story surrounding a man named Socrates Fortlow. However, while the movie version of Always Outnumbered, Always Outgunned follows the same concept as the book there are substantial differences in terms of eventsRead More Never Give Up, Never Surrend er Essay1510 Words   |  7 Pagesmost men are broken they will stay damaged. It takes a rare figure to come out of the fire tempered to a stronger man. Socrates Fortlow is such a man, tempered by guilt, jail and a hard life to become a better human being. Always Outnumbered, Always Outgunned by Walter Mosley shows some of the grit of humanity but some of the finest as well. The rooster, Billy, starts the novel and shows Socrates a last gasp can be your most important. As the book progresses, a job becomes a courtroom where SocratesRead MoreIn Their Novels, Many African American Writers Examine1929 Words   |  8 Pageshow he became Invisible Man. He is raised in the south and moves to Harlem after he is kicked out of college. In Harlem, he joins the Brotherhood and later learns the bleak existence which African American men and women live. Always Outnumbered, Always Outgunned by Walter Mosley tells the story of an ex-convict named Socrates, who retells his interactions with his c ommunity through short stories. He speaks to many community members, including a boy named Darryl, and tries to have them think critically